Ferdinand III of Castile had conquered almost all Andalusia by 1251. From 1230 until its fall to the Christians, the city was under the rule of the Nasrid dynasty. Trade from Granada included silk, ceramic, and porcelain. The kingdom of Granada was the last stronghold of Islamic rule in Spain, which was considered a pinnacle of culture in the Islamic world. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak in 1566, coinciding with the beginning of the scientific revolution in Europe, which would lead to the political dominance of Europe over the course of the following century. The European Renaissance was significantly triggered by the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 (resulting in a wave of Byzantine scholars fleeing to Italy). The history of the Ottoman Empire is intimately connected to the history of Renaissance and Early Modern Europe. Historians have noted that even during the 12th and 14th centuries the two parties had little interest in learning about each other. There was limited direct interaction between the two cultures even though there was substantial trade between Europe and the Middle East at this time: merchants would often use intermediaries, a practice that had been common since the time of the Roman Empire. Much of Europe's contact with the Islamic world was through various wars opposing the expansion of the Ottoman Empire.
There was cultural contact between Europe and the Islamic world (at the time primarily represented by the Ottoman Empire and, geographically more remote, Safavid Persia) from the Renaissance to Early Modern period. Right image: Averroes and Pythagoras (detail). Left image: The School of Athens by Raphael, a symbol of Renaissance knowledge, includes Muslim Averroes in its community of learned men.
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